Free reference guide · VCE
Worked examples: 2026 VCE Chemistry Data Book
Work through the chemical relationships in the VCAA 2026 Chemistry Data Book, with original examples and the official PDF.
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Formula index with worked examples
Amount · four routes to moles
Formula or reference: n = m/M = cV = N/NA = V/Vm, using the form appropriate to the data.
Units and conditions: Use matching mass units, c in mol/L and solution volume in L, or matching gas volume and molar-volume units.
Worked example: 40.0 mL of 0.250 mol/L solution contains 0.0100 mol. The same amount corresponds to about 6.02 × 10²¹ entities.
Solutions · concentration in ppm by mass
Formula or reference: c(ppm) = solute mass in mg ÷ solution mass in kg.
Units and conditions: ppm by mass is numerically mg/kg.
Worked example: A 0.50 kg solution containing 4.0 mg of solute has a concentration of 8.0 ppm by mass.
Properties · density
Formula or reference: ρ = m/V
Units and conditions: Use consistent units, such as g/mL or kg/m³.
Worked example: A 24.0 g liquid sample occupying 30.0 mL has density 0.800 g/mL.
Gases · ideal gas law
Formula or reference: pV = nRT
Units and conditions: Use K and consistent pressure and volume units for the selected value of R.
Worked example: At 300 K and 100 kPa, 0.50 mol of ideal gas occupies about 12.5 L.
Thermochemistry · enthalpy difference
Formula or reference: ΔH = Hproducts − Hreactants
Units and conditions: Use the same units and basis for both values.
Worked example: If products are at 180 kJ and reactants at 220 kJ for the stated reaction, ΔH = −40 kJ.
Calorimetry · heat transferred
Formula or reference: q = mcΔT
Units and conditions: With m in g and c in J/(g °C), q is in joules.
Worked example: Heating 100 g of water by 3.0 °C at c = 4.18 J/(g °C) transfers about 1.25 kJ to the water.
Calorimetry · molar enthalpy
Formula or reference: ΔH = q/n
Units and conditions: Use q for the signed heat of the reaction and n for the amount on the specified reaction basis.
Worked example: If 0.10 mol releases 3.0 kJ, ΔH is −30 kJ/mol.
Electrolysis · amount of electrons
Formula or reference: Q = It and n(e⁻) = Q/F.
Units and conditions: I in A, t in seconds, Q in coulombs and F in C/mol.
Worked example: A current of 0.50 A for 193 s transfers 96.5 C, or about 0.00100 mol of electrons when F = 96,500 C/mol.
Electricity · energy supplied
Formula or reference: E = VIt
Units and conditions: Use V, A and s to obtain J.
Worked example: A 6 V supply delivering 2 A for 10 s supplies 120 J.
Calorimetry · calibration factors
Formula or reference: Electrical: CF = E/ΔT. Reaction: CF = nΔH/ΔT with the corresponding sign convention.
Units and conditions: Use the same energy unit in both forms. A physical calibration factor is positive.
Worked example: A 120 J input that increases temperature by 0.40 °C gives 300 J/°C. A reaction delivering 150 J to the calorimeter and raising it by 0.50 °C gives the same value.
Electrochemistry · standard cell potential
Formula or reference: E°cell = E°(reduction half-cell) − E°(oxidation half-cell), using tabulated reduction potentials.
Units and conditions: Both values in volts.
Worked example: A +0.34 V cathode and −0.76 V anode, read as reduction potentials, give E°cell = +1.10 V.
Green chemistry · atom economy
Formula or reference: Atom economy = (mass of desired product from the balanced equation ÷ mass of all reactants on the same basis) × 100%.
Units and conditions: Apply stoichiometric coefficients to the molar masses before taking the ratio.
Worked example: If the balanced reaction gives 60 g of desired product for 100 g of reactants on the same basis, atom economy is 60%.
Synthesis · percentage yield
Formula or reference: Yield = (actual yield ÷ theoretical yield) × 100%.
Units and conditions: Both quantities must be for the same product and in matching units.
Worked example: An actual mass of 7.5 g against a theoretical 10.0 g is a 75% yield.
Equilibrium · concentration expression
Formula or reference: For aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, Kc = [C]ᶜ[D]ᵈ/([A]ᵃ[B]ᵇ), omitting pure solids and liquids.
Units and conditions: Use equilibrium concentrations. The concentration-form units depend on the powers in the expression.
Worked example: For A ⇌ 2B, [A] = 0.50 mol/L and [B] = 0.20 mol/L give Kc = 0.20²/0.50 = 0.080 mol/L.
What to work out beyond the sheet
A data-book relationship gives the number of moles of electrons. The balanced half-equation gives the amount of product formed from those electrons.
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