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Unit 3 — Chemical equilibrium systems
Explain reaction rates through collision frequency, activation energy and orientation. Distinguish an open system from a closed one and constant equilibrium composition from stopped reaction. Use energy profiles, equilibrium expressions and Le Châtelier reasoning to predict responses to temperature, concentration and gas-volume changes, including carbonate chemistry in seawater.
Unit 3 — Acids and bases
Use proton-transfer equations to identify conjugate pairs, amphiprotic species and salt hydrolysis. Separate acid strength from concentration, interpret Ka qualitatively, and calculate strong-acid or strong-base pH using Kw at 25 °C. Explain buffers, indicators and titration procedures through the chemistry they rely on.
Unit 3 — Oxidation and reduction
Track electron transfer through oxidation numbers and balanced half-equations in acidic conditions. Use standard electrode potentials to compare reaction tendencies and calculate standard cell voltage. Explain galvanic and electrolytic cells, electron flow, ionic conduction, copper refining, silver plating and corrosion prevention.
Unit 4 — Properties and structure of organic materials
Recognise and name the listed functional groups in simple structures with parent chains up to eight carbons. Distinguish chain, position and cis–trans isomers; predict alkene addition, alcohol oxidation and esterification. Link intermolecular forces to properties, calculate empirical and molecular formulae, and interpret polymer and protein structures.
Unit 4 — Chemical synthesis
Plan connected reaction steps, determine limiting reagents and calculate theoretical and percentage yields. Evaluate the rate–yield compromises in the Haber and Contact processes, ethanol production and biodiesel synthesis. Explain saponification, cleaning in hard water, and how polymer structure affects material properties and uses.
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