Free QCE Philosophy & Reason Flashcard Review
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What is an argument in Philosophy & Reason?
A set of propositions in which one (the conclusion) is claimed to be supported by the others (the premises). A list of opinions with no claimed support is not an argument.
What is a proposition?
A statement that is either true or false, such as ‘The state taxes inheritances’. Questions and commands are not propositions.
Claim versus proposition — what is the difference in use?
A claim is a proposition asserted by someone as true; the same proposition can be asserted, doubted or merely supposed.
What is a premise?
A proposition offered as a reason to accept the conclusion of an argument.
Name four indicator words that usually signal a premise.
‘Because’, ‘since’, ‘given that’ and ‘for’. They mark what follows as a reason.
Name four indicator words that usually signal a conclusion.
‘Therefore’, ‘so’, ‘hence’ and ‘it follows that’. Check by asking which claim the others are meant to support.
What is a hidden (unstated) premise?
A premise the argument needs for the conclusion to follow but which the arguer did not state. Supplying it often reveals the most contestable assumption.
What is standard form?
The argument set out as numbered premises (P1, P2…) followed by the conclusion (C), with hidden premises added and rhetoric removed.
What is an intermediate (sub-)conclusion?
A conclusion drawn from some premises that then serves as a premise for the main conclusion; standard form should show the chain.
How should you handle rhetoric when deconstructing a stimulus argument?
Strip out loaded wording and repetition, keep each proposition's meaning, and state each premise as a clear declarative sentence that can be evaluated.
Define a deductively valid argument.
An argument in which, if all the premises are true, the conclusion must be true; validity is a matter of form, not of the premises' actual truth.
Define a sound argument.
A deductively valid argument whose premises are all true, so its conclusion must be true.
Can an invalid argument have true premises and a true conclusion?
Yes. Invalidity means the conclusion does not follow necessarily, not that it is false — e.g. affirming the consequent with true statements.
Define an inductively strong argument.
An argument in which, if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true. Strength comes in degrees and new evidence can weaken it.
What is a cogent argument?
An inductively strong argument whose premises are true (or acceptable); the inductive counterpart of soundness.
What makes a claim plausible?
Its content fits with what we already have good reason to believe, so it is likely to be true.
What makes a claim credible?
Its source is reliable: relevant expertise, no significant conflict of interest, a good track record and corroboration by other sources.
Deduction versus induction — the core difference?
Deduction claims the conclusion follows necessarily; induction claims it follows only probably. Evaluate deduction by validity and soundness, induction by strength and cogency.
What is a generalisation argument and how is it tested?
An inductive argument from observed instances to a claim about a whole class; test sample size, representativeness and how strong the conclusion is.
How is an argument from analogy evaluated?
By whether the shared features are relevant to the conclusion and whether there are relevant disanalogies; more relevant similarities and fewer disanalogies make it stronger.